PMBOK 7 – Tools & Techniques Master Reference

1. PMBOK 7 ITTO Overview

PMBOK 7 (7th Edition, 2021) represents a major shift from the process-centric, ITTO-heavy format of PMBOK 6 to a principles-based framework. Instead of 49 processes with defined Inputs → Tools & Techniques → Outputs, PMBOK 7 provides:

PMBOK 6 Structure	PMBOK 7 Structure
5 Process Groups	12 Project Management Principles
10 Knowledge Areas	8 Performance Domains
49 Processes	Models, Methods & Artifacts (MMA)
ITTO for each process	Tailoring guidance

🎯 PMP Exam Note: For the current PMP exam, both PMBOK 7 and the ECO (Examination Content Outline) are tested. Many tools from PMBOK 6 ITTO still appear. This reference covers all tools you need regardless of edition.

The 12 PMBOK 7 Principles

#	Principle	Key Focus
1	Stewardship	Be a diligent, respectful, and caring steward
2	Team	Create a collaborative project team environment
3	Stakeholders	Effectively engage with stakeholders
4	Value	Focus on value delivery
5	Systems Thinking	Recognize, evaluate, and respond to system interactions
6	Leadership	Demonstrate leadership behaviors
7	Tailoring	Tailor based on context
8	Quality	Build quality into processes and deliverables
9	Complexity	Navigate complexity
10	Risk	Optimize risk responses
11	Adaptability & Resilience	Embrace adaptability and resiliency
12	Change	Enable change to achieve the envisioned future state

The 8 Performance Domains

Domain	Focus Area
Stakeholder	Engagement, expectations, communication
Team	Team culture, development, performance
Development Approach & Life Cycle	Predictive, adaptive, or hybrid delivery
Planning	Organizing, elaborating, coordinating
Project Work	Processes, communications, physical resources
Delivery	Scope, requirements, quality, value
Measurement	KPIs, metrics, forecasts, performance data
Uncertainty	Risk, ambiguity, volatility, complexity

2. Models, Methods & Artifacts (MMA)

PMBOK 7 replaces ITTOs with the MMA section — a practitioner toolkit organized into three categories:

Category	Definition	Examples
Models	Thinking strategies and frameworks	Tuckman, ADKAR, Cynefin, Salience
Methods	Means for achieving an outcome	CPM, PERT, Kanban, Earned Value
Artifacts	Templates, documents, outputs	WBS, Risk Register, Project Charter

3. Brainstorming

Data Gathering Creative Group

What It Is

A creativity technique used to generate a large number of ideas quickly from a group, encouraging free thinking without criticism.

Where It Is Used

Performance Domain	Use Case
Uncertainty (Risk)	Identify project risks
Planning	Identify requirements, WBS elements
Delivery	Identify quality issues and solutions
Stakeholder	Identify stakeholders

Components / Method

Preparation: Define the topic/problem clearly before the session
Facilitation: A neutral facilitator manages the session
Idea Generation: All ideas recorded without judgment (5–20 min)
Consolidation: Ideas grouped using affinity diagrams
Evaluation: Ideas evaluated for feasibility after session

Variants

Nominal Group Technique (NGT): Individual idea generation first, then group sharing
Reverse Brainstorming: Identify what could cause failure instead of success
Brainwriting: Written ideas passed around silently
Round-Robin: Each participant takes a turn

Key Outputs / Artifacts

Risk register entries
Requirements list
Stakeholder list
Lessons learned

4. Interviews

Data Gathering Individual

What It Is

A formal or informal approach to elicit information from stakeholders through direct conversation — one-on-one or in small groups.

Where It Is Used

Domain / Process	Use
Planning	Collect requirements, assumptions
Uncertainty	Identify risks from expert opinion
Stakeholder	Understand stakeholder needs and concerns
Measurement	Gather performance feedback

Components / Method

Structured: Pre-defined questions, consistent across interviews
Unstructured: Open-ended, conversational, exploratory
Semi-structured: Mix of both (most common in PM)
Steps: Prepare questions → Conduct interview → Document responses → Analyze and validate

5. Focus Groups

Data Gathering Group

What It Is

A moderated discussion with pre-qualified stakeholders and subject matter experts to learn about expectations, attitudes, and opinions on a product, service, or result.

Where Used

Requirements collection (Delivery domain)
Stakeholder engagement assessment
Quality expectations gathering

Method

Trained moderator leads 6–12 participants
Session typically 1–2 hours
More interactive than surveys, less structured than interviews

6. Questionnaires & Surveys

Data Gathering Large Group

What It Is

Written sets of questions designed to quickly accumulate information from a large number of respondents.

Where Used

Requirements elicitation from large stakeholder groups
Risk identification across distributed teams
Lessons learned collection
Stakeholder satisfaction measurement

Method

Closed-ended: Yes/No, multiple choice, Likert scale (easy to analyze)
Open-ended: Free text (more insight, harder to analyze)
Best used when: many respondents, need statistical analysis, geographically dispersed

7. Benchmarking

Data Gathering Data Analysis

What It Is

Comparing actual or planned practices, processes, or quality levels to comparable projects or industry standards to identify best practices and opportunities for improvement.

Where Used

Quality planning and quality control
Schedule and cost baseline development
Risk planning
Performance measurement

Method

Internal: Compare to similar internal projects
Competitive: Compare to competitors
Functional: Compare same function across industries
Generic: Compare best-in-class regardless of industry

8. Document Analysis

Data Gathering

What It Is

Reviewing and analyzing existing documentation to extract relevant information for the project.

Where Used

Requirements development
Risk identification
Stakeholder identification
Procurement planning
Lessons learned

Documents Reviewed

Agreements, business plans, marketing literature, RFPs, feasibility studies, SOWs, regulatory requirements, policies, procedures, prior project files, and industry standards.

9. Checklists

Data Gathering Quality

What It Is

A structured list of required steps or items to be completed or verified. Used to ensure consistency and completeness.

Where Used

Quality control inspections
Risk identification
Project closeout
Procurement

Method

Items listed in logical order of execution
Each item checked off upon completion/verification
Often derived from historical project data or industry standards

10. Check Sheets

Data Gathering Quality

What It Is

A tally sheet used to collect and organize data about potential quality problems. Helps identify frequency of defects, issues, or other events.

Where Used

Quality control (counting defects)
Root cause analysis preparation

Example Structure

Defect Type	Mon	Tue	Wed	Total
Crack	III	II	IIII	9
Missing rebar	I	III	I	5
Wrong spec	II	I	II	5

11. Earned Value Analysis (EVA)

Data Analysis Measurement

What It Is

An integrated method that combines scope, schedule, and cost data to objectively measure project performance and forecast completion.

Where Used

Measurement Domain: Primary performance measurement tool
Planning Domain: Establish baselines (PV)
Project Work Domain: Monitor and control performance

Key Components

Term	Formula	Meaning
PV – Planned Value	Baseline	Budgeted cost of work scheduled
EV – Earned Value	% Complete × BAC	Budgeted cost of work performed
AC – Actual Cost	Actual spend	Actual cost incurred
BAC – Budget at Completion	Total budget	Total planned budget
CV – Cost Variance	EV – AC	+ve = under budget
SV – Schedule Variance	EV – PV	+ve = ahead of schedule
CPI – Cost Performance Index	EV / AC	>1 = efficient
SPI – Schedule Performance Index	EV / PV	>1 = ahead
EAC – Estimate at Completion	BAC / CPI	Expected total cost
ETC – Estimate to Complete	EAC – AC	Cost remaining
VAC – Variance at Completion	BAC – EAC	Expected over/under run
TCPI – To Complete PI	(BAC–EV)/(BAC–AC)	Efficiency needed to meet BAC

Rule of Thumb: CPI < 0.9 is a serious warning. Once a project is 20% complete, the CPI rarely improves significantly.

12. Variance Analysis

Data Analysis

What It Is

Reviewing differences between planned and actual performance to determine their cause and decide corrective or preventive actions.

Where Used

Cost control (Cost Variance)
Schedule control (Schedule Variance)
Scope control
Quality control

Method

Compare baseline to actual
Calculate variance (absolute or %)
Determine if within threshold
If outside threshold → root cause analysis → corrective action

13. Trend Analysis

Data Analysis

What It Is

Examining project performance over time to determine if performance is improving or deteriorating, and forecasting future performance.

Where Used

Schedule performance tracking
Cost performance tracking
Quality metrics over iterations
Risk exposure trends

Tools Used

Run charts (data plotted over time)
Burndown/burnup charts (Agile)
S-curves
EV trend lines

14. Root Cause Analysis (RCA)

Data Analysis Quality

What It Is

A structured method to identify the fundamental cause of a defect, problem, or risk — not just the symptoms.

Where Used

Quality control and improvement
Risk management (preventing recurrence)
Issue resolution in Project Work domain
Lessons learned

Common RCA Methods

Method	Description
5 Whys	Ask "Why?" repeatedly (5 times) to drill down to root cause
Fishbone (Ishikawa)	Cause-and-effect diagram showing categories of causes
Fault Tree Analysis	Top-down deductive analysis using logic gates
Pareto Analysis	80/20 rule — identify the 20% of causes producing 80% of problems

5 Whys Example

Problem: Bridge inspection report was late

Why 1: Inspector didn't have access to inspection software → Why 2: License expired → Why 3: IT wasn't notified → Why 4: No renewal process existed → Why 5: No software asset management policy

Root Cause: Lack of software asset management policy

15. SWOT Analysis

Data Analysis Strategic

What It Is

Analysis of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats — used to identify internal and external factors affecting the project or organization.

Where Used

Risk identification (Uncertainty domain)
Project initiation / business case
Strategic planning

Method

	Internal	External
Positive	Strengths (S)	Opportunities (O)
Negative	Weaknesses (W)	Threats (T)

After identification: develop SO strategies (use strengths to exploit opportunities), WO strategies (overcome weaknesses using opportunities), ST strategies, and WT strategies (defensive).

16. Risk Probability & Impact Assessment

Data Analysis Risk

What It Is

A qualitative risk analysis method that assesses each identified risk for its likelihood of occurring (Probability) and the effect it would have on project objectives (Impact).

Where Used

Uncertainty domain — qualitative risk analysis
Risk prioritization

Method

Assign probability: Very Low (0.1) → Very High (0.9)
Assign impact: scale 0.05 → 0.80
Risk Score = Probability × Impact
Plot on Probability & Impact Matrix (P×I Matrix)
High scores → red zone → priority response needed

Risk Score	Priority	Response
0.54 – 0.72	HIGH	Immediate response required
0.18 – 0.36	MEDIUM	Monitor, contingency plan
0.01 – 0.12	LOW	Accept, watch list

17. Sensitivity Analysis

Data Analysis Risk

What It Is

A quantitative risk analysis method that determines which risks have the most potential impact on the project by examining the effect of varying one variable at a time while keeping others constant.

Where Used

Uncertainty domain — quantitative risk analysis
Cost risk assessment
Schedule risk assessment

Output: Tornado Diagram

A horizontal bar chart where risks are ranked from highest impact (top) to lowest (bottom), creating a tornado shape. The widest bar represents the greatest uncertainty source.

18. Monte Carlo Simulation

Data Analysis Risk Quantitative

What It Is

A computer-based simulation that runs thousands of "what-if" scenarios using probability distributions for uncertain inputs (cost, duration) to produce a range of possible outcomes with probabilities.

Where Used

Quantitative risk analysis (Uncertainty domain)
Schedule risk (determining probability of on-time completion)
Cost risk (probability of within-budget completion)

Method

Assign probability distributions (triangular, beta, normal) to uncertain inputs
Run 1,000–10,000 iterations randomly sampling each distribution
Compile results into an S-curve showing cumulative probability
Read off: "80% confident we'll finish by [date]" or "spend less than $X"

Example Output: "There is a 70% probability of completing within 12 months, and a 90% probability of completing within 15 months."

19. Regression Analysis

Data Analysis

What It Is

A statistical method that examines the relationship between variables to understand how one variable changes in response to another, used for forecasting and estimating.

Where Used

Parametric cost estimating
Schedule forecasting
Quality metrics prediction

Types

Simple Linear Regression: One independent variable
Multiple Regression: Multiple independent variables

20. Reserve Analysis

Data Analysis Cost & Schedule

What It Is

A technique used to determine how much contingency and management reserve to include in the project budget and schedule.

Types of Reserve

Type	For	Controlled By	In Baseline?
Contingency Reserve	Known unknowns (identified risks)	Project Manager	Yes (in cost baseline)
Management Reserve	Unknown unknowns	Management	No (above baseline)

Methods for Determining Contingency

Percentage of estimate (e.g., 10% of total cost)
Expected monetary value (EMV) of risk events
Monte Carlo simulation output at desired confidence level

21. Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)

Data Analysis Financial

What It Is

A systematic process of calculating and comparing benefits and costs of a project or decision to determine whether and how to proceed.

Where Used

Project selection and authorization
Quality planning (cost of quality)
Change request evaluation
Risk response planning

Key Metrics

Metric	Formula	Decision Rule
Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR)	Benefits / Costs	BCR > 1 = acceptable
Net Present Value (NPV)	PV(benefits) – PV(costs)	NPV > 0 = acceptable
Return on Investment (ROI)	(Benefit–Cost)/Cost × 100%	Higher is better
Payback Period	Cost / Annual Benefit	Shorter is better
IRR	Rate where NPV = 0	IRR > WACC = accept

22. Assumption & Constraint Analysis

Data Analysis

What It Is

The process of exploring the validity of assumptions and constraints to identify risks arising from inaccurate, inconsistent, or incomplete assumptions.

Where Used

Planning domain — project initiation
Uncertainty (risk identification)

Method

Assumptions: Factors believed to be true but not yet confirmed → test for validity
Constraints: Binding conditions (budget cap, regulatory deadline) → identify limitations
Invalid assumptions become risk triggers
Record in Assumption Log

23. Alternatives Analysis

Data Analysis

What It Is

A technique used to evaluate identified options or approaches in order to select which approaches will be used to perform project work.

Where Used

Scope definition (delivery approach)
Resource planning
Schedule development (schedule compression)
Procurement strategy selection

24. Process Analysis

Data Analysis Quality

What It Is

A technique that examines problems, constraints, and non-value-added activities that occur during a process, identifying opportunities for improvement.

Where Used

Quality management
Continuous improvement (kaizen)
Process tailoring

Includes

Root cause analysis of process failures
Value stream mapping
Lean waste identification

25. Forecasting

Data Analysis Measurement

What It Is

Estimating or predicting future project performance and conditions based on information and knowledge available at the time of the forecast.

Types

Type	Method	Best For
Time-series	Moving average, trend lines	Schedule forecasts
Causal/econometric	Regression analysis	Cost drivers
Judgmental	Expert opinion, Delphi	Novel projects
EV-based (EAC)	BAC/CPI, AC+ETC	Cost forecasting

26. Affinity Diagrams

Data Representation

What It Is

A method for organizing and grouping a large number of ideas, issues, or facts by their natural affinity or relationship. Commonly used after brainstorming.

Where Used

Requirements grouping and prioritization
Risk categorization
Lessons learned organization

Method

Write each idea on a separate card/sticky note
Group related ideas together (silently)
Name each group with a header card
Result: organized categories of information

27. Cause-and-Effect Diagrams (Fishbone / Ishikawa)

Data Representation Quality

What It Is

A visual tool that shows the relationship between a problem (effect) and its potential causes, organized into categories along a horizontal "fish spine."

Where Used

Quality control — identify causes of defects
Root cause analysis
Risk analysis

The 6M Categories (Manufacturing)

Man (People)
Machine (Equipment)
Method (Process)
Material
Measurement
Mother Nature (Environment)

The 4S Categories (Service)

Suppliers, Systems, Surroundings, Skills

28. Control Charts

Data Representation Quality

What It Is

A statistical process control chart that displays process data over time with control limits, used to determine whether a process is stable and predictable.

Where Used

Quality control (Delivery domain)
Process performance monitoring

Key Components

Component	Meaning
UCL – Upper Control Limit	Mean + 3σ (not a spec limit)
LCL – Lower Control Limit	Mean – 3σ
Mean	Center line
Data Points	Measurements over time

Rule of 7 (Western Electric Rules)

Out of control (special cause) if:

Any point beyond UCL or LCL
7 consecutive points on same side of mean
7 consecutive points trending up or down

29. Flowcharts

Data Representation

What It Is

A graphical depiction of a sequence of steps and decisions needed to perform a process.

Where Used

Process documentation and quality planning
Risk analysis (process failure points)
Stakeholder communication
Change control process mapping

Common Symbols

Oval = Start/End (Terminator)
Rectangle = Process/Activity
Diamond = Decision
Parallelogram = Input/Output
Arrow = Flow direction

30. Histograms

Data Representation Quality

What It Is

A vertical bar chart showing the frequency distribution of data, revealing patterns in distribution (normal, skewed, bimodal).

Where Used

Quality control analysis
Risk frequency analysis

Interpretation

Bell-shaped: Normal, stable process
Skewed right: Most data at low values, tail to right
Bimodal: Two peaks → possible two different processes mixed
Comb: Measurement error or grouping issue

31. Scatter Diagrams

Data Representation Quality

What It Is

A graph showing the relationship between two variables. Used to test if a cause-and-effect relationship exists or to verify a correlation.

Where Used

Quality control (prove/disprove cause)
Risk correlation analysis

Correlation Types

Positive correlation: Both variables increase together
Negative correlation: One increases as other decreases
No correlation: Scattered randomly — no relationship

32. Matrix Diagrams

Data Representation

What It Is

A quality management tool showing relationships between two sets of data using a grid format, with relationship strength shown at intersections.

Where Used

Requirements traceability matrix
Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM / RACI)
Stakeholder engagement matrix
Quality management tool

Common Matrix Types

Matrix	Purpose
RACI Matrix	Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, Informed
RTM – Requirements Traceability	Links requirements to deliverables and tests
P×I Matrix	Risk probability × impact prioritization
L-shaped	Two-row/column comparison
T-shaped	Compare two groups to a third

33. Hierarchical Charts

Data Representation

What It Is

Charts that display data in a hierarchical structure, breaking complex information into organized levels.

Types

Chart	Use
WBS – Work Breakdown Structure	Hierarchical decomposition of project scope
OBS – Organizational Breakdown Structure	Shows org hierarchy linked to work packages
RBS – Resource Breakdown Structure	Categorizes resources by type
Risk Breakdown Structure	Categories and sub-categories of risk

34. Multicriteria Decision Analysis (MCDA)

Decision Making

What It Is

A structured approach to evaluate and prioritize options against multiple criteria simultaneously, assigning weights based on importance.

Where Used

Source selection (procurement)
Resource selection
Risk response option selection
Project selection/prioritization

Method

List all options (rows) and criteria (columns)
Assign weight to each criterion (totaling 100%)
Score each option against each criterion (1–5 or 1–10)
Weighted Score = Weight × Score for each cell
Sum weighted scores per option — highest score wins

Example Criteria: Cost, Technical Capability, Experience, Schedule, Risk, References

35. Decision Tree Analysis

Decision Making Risk

What It Is

A diagrammatic analysis tool used to evaluate multiple decision paths and their possible outcomes, incorporating probabilities and costs/benefits.

Where Used

Quantitative risk analysis
Make-or-buy decisions
Contract type selection

Key Concept: Expected Monetary Value (EMV)

EMV = Probability × Impact (monetary value)

Example: 30% chance of $100K loss = EMV of –$30K

Decision Node (square): points where a choice is made

Chance Node (circle): points where outcomes depend on probability

36. Voting Methods

Decision Making

Types

Method	Description	Best For
Unanimity	All agree	Critical decisions needing full commitment
Majority	>50% agree	General team decisions
Plurality	Largest group wins (no majority needed)	Multi-option decisions
Dictatorship	One person decides	Time-critical; clear authority
Fist-to-Five	Show fingers 0(fist)–5 for support level	Agile teams, quick consensus
Dot Voting	Each person gets dots to allocate to options	Prioritizing lists

37. Force Field Analysis

Decision Making

What It Is

A technique for analyzing forces driving and restraining a change, helping to decide whether the change is feasible and how to improve chances of success.

Where Used

Change management
Risk response planning
Stakeholder management

Method

State the change/decision in the center
List driving forces (pushing toward change) on the left
List restraining forces (pushing against) on the right
Score each force (1–5)
If driving > restraining → proceed; strengthen drivers and weaken restraints

38. Analogous Estimating

Estimating

What It Is

Using historical data from a similar previous project to estimate the current project's cost, duration, or other parameters.

Characteristics

Attribute	Details
Accuracy	–25% to +75% (rough)
Cost	Low
Time	Fast
Best used	Early project phases, limited information
Requires	Expert judgment; historical data

39. Parametric Estimating

Estimating

What It Is

A technique that uses statistical relationships between historical data and other variables (e.g., cost per unit, hours per function point) to calculate estimates.

Characteristics

Attribute	Details
Accuracy	–10% to +25%
Best used	When unit rates are well-established
Example	$200/linear foot of steel beam × 500 LF = $100,000

40. Bottom-Up Estimating

Estimating

What It Is

Estimating individual work packages at the lowest level of the WBS and then rolling up (aggregating) the estimates to obtain project totals.

Characteristics

Attribute	Details
Accuracy	–5% to +10% (most accurate)
Cost	High (time-consuming)
Best used	Detailed planning phase
Requires	Complete WBS, detailed scope

41. Three-Point Estimating (PERT)

Estimating Schedule

What It Is

An estimating technique that uses three scenarios (optimistic, most likely, pessimistic) to improve accuracy by accounting for estimation uncertainty.

Formulas

Method	Formula	Notes
PERT / Beta Distribution	E = (O + 4M + P) / 6	Weights most likely 4×; most used
Triangular Distribution	E = (O + M + P) / 3	Equal weight to all three
Standard Deviation (σ)	σ = (P – O) / 6	PERT only
Variance	σ² = [(P – O) / 6]²

Example

O = 4 days, M = 6 days, P = 14 days

PERT E = (4 + 4×6 + 14) / 6 = (4 + 24 + 14) / 6 = 42 / 6 = 7 days

σ = (14 – 4) / 6 = 10 / 6 = 1.67 days

68% confidence range: 7 ± 1.67 = 5.33 to 8.67 days

95% confidence range: 7 ± 2(1.67) = 3.66 to 10.34 days

42. Story Points & Relative Sizing

Estimating Agile

What It Is

An agile estimating technique using relative sizing (story points) rather than absolute time to estimate the effort/complexity of user stories.

Methods

Method	Description
Planning Poker	Each team member privately selects a card, reveals simultaneously — discuss outliers
T-Shirt Sizing	XS, S, M, L, XL — quick relative sizing
Affinity Mapping	Sort stories by relative size on a scale
Fibonacci Sequence	1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21 — reflects uncertainty of larger items

Velocity

After several sprints, team velocity (average story points per sprint) is used for release planning: Release Date ≈ Total Story Points / Velocity

43. Active Listening

Interpersonal

What It Is

A communication skill where the listener fully concentrates, understands, responds, and then remembers what is being said.

Techniques

Paraphrasing: Restate what was said in your own words
Clarifying: Ask questions to understand
Reflecting: Mirror the speaker's feelings
Summarizing: Review key points at the end
Non-verbal cues: Eye contact, nodding, open posture

44. Conflict Management

Interpersonal

What It Is

A set of techniques used to resolve disagreements and conflict among project team members, stakeholders, or other parties.

5 Conflict Resolution Techniques (Thomas-Kilmann)

Technique	Also Called	Result	When to Use
Collaborate / Problem Solve	Confronting	Win-Win ✅	Most situations — best result
Compromise	Reconciling	Lose-Lose	Temporary solution; equal power
Smooth / Accommodate	Harmonizing	Yield	Preserving relationship short-term
Force / Direct	Directing	Win-Lose	Emergency, power authority
Withdraw / Avoid	Retreating	Lose-Lose ❌	Cool-down only; least effective

PMP Key: Collaboration/Problem Solving is ALWAYS the preferred technique. Withdrawal is NEVER a good long-term solution.

45. Emotional Intelligence (EI)

Interpersonal

What It Is

The ability to identify, assess, and manage one's own emotions and the emotions of others — essential for project leadership.

Goleman's 5 Components

Component	Description
Self-awareness	Know your own emotions, strengths, weaknesses
Self-regulation	Control emotions; think before acting
Motivation	Inner drive to achieve; optimistic under failure
Empathy	Understand others' feelings; serve others
Social Skills	Build networks, influence, collaborate

46. Facilitation

Interpersonal

What It Is

The ability to guide a group effectively through a process or discussion to reach conclusions, make decisions, or solve problems.

Where Used

Requirements workshops
Risk workshops
Retrospectives
Team development sessions

Facilitator Skills

Neutral stance (no personal agenda)
Active listening and paraphrasing
Managing dominant/quiet participants
Timeboxing discussions
Visual recording (flip charts, whiteboards)

47. Leadership Styles

Interpersonal Team Domain

Leadership Models on PMP Exam

Style	Description	Best For
Servant Leadership	Leader serves the team; removes impediments	Agile/Scrum; PMBOK 7 preferred
Transformational	Inspire change; articulate vision	Innovation, culture change
Transactional	Reward/punishment based performance	Routine, stable environments
Laissez-faire	Hands-off; team self-directs	Expert teams only
Autocratic	Leader decides alone	Crisis, emergencies
Democratic	Team input in decisions	Creative, collaborative work

Situational Leadership (Hersey-Blanchard)

Quadrant	Style	Team Maturity
S1 – Directing	High task, low relationship	M1: Low competence, high commitment
S2 – Coaching	High task, high relationship	M2: Some competence, low commitment
S3 – Supporting	Low task, high relationship	M3: High competence, variable commitment
S4 – Delegating	Low task, low relationship	M4: High competence, high commitment

48. Negotiation

Interpersonal

What It Is

A discussion aimed at reaching a mutually acceptable agreement when parties have different or conflicting interests.

Negotiation Approaches

Approach	Result
Principled / Integrative	Win-Win (best; interests-based)
Positional / Distributive	Win-Lose (zero sum; fixed pie)
BATNA – Best Alternative to Negotiated Agreement	Walk-away option

49. Team Building

Interpersonal Team Domain

Tuckman's Team Development Model

Stage	Characteristics	PM Action
1. Forming	Team assembles; polite, uncertain	Direct; set clear expectations
2. Storming	Conflict, competing ideas	Coach; facilitate conflict resolution
3. Norming	Consensus, cohesion developing	Support; encourage collaboration
4. Performing	High productivity, trust	Delegate; remove impediments
5. Adjourning	Project ends; team disperses	Recognize; capture lessons learned

50. Motivation Theories

Interpersonal Team Domain

Key Theories for PMP

Theory	Theorist	Key Concept
Hierarchy of Needs	Maslow	5 levels: Physiological → Safety → Social → Esteem → Self-actualization
Hygiene / Motivation	Herzberg	Hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction; motivators create satisfaction
Theory X / Y	McGregor	X: people dislike work; Y: people are self-motivated
Theory Z	Ouchi	Job security and collective decision-making motivate
Expectancy Theory	Vroom	Effort → Performance → Reward linkage motivates
Achievement Theory	McClelland	People motivated by Achievement, Power, or Affiliation

Herzberg's Factors

Hygiene Factors (Prevent Dissatisfaction)	Motivating Factors (Create Satisfaction)
Salary, working conditions, supervision, policy	Achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement

51. Kickoff Meeting

Meetings

What It Is

A formal meeting held at the start of a project (or phase) to align all stakeholders and team members on objectives, expectations, roles, and communication.

Key Agenda Items

Project overview and charter review
Team introductions
Roles and responsibilities
Communication plan and reporting
Project schedule and milestones
Q&A

52. Daily Standup (Daily Scrum)

Meetings Agile

What It Is

A short (15-minute max) daily synchronization meeting for the development team to inspect progress toward the Sprint Goal and adapt the Sprint Backlog.

Three Questions

What did I do yesterday?
What will I do today?
Are there any impediments/blockers?

Rules: Same time, same place. Timeboxed to 15 min. Standing recommended. Scrum Master removes impediments raised.

53. Iteration / Sprint Planning

Meetings Agile

What It Is

A meeting at the start of each sprint where the team selects items from the Product Backlog, commits to a Sprint Goal, and decomposes backlog items into tasks.

Outputs

Sprint Goal
Sprint Backlog
Task breakdown (hours)

54. Retrospectives

Meetings Agile

What It Is

A meeting held at the end of each iteration for the team to inspect itself and create a plan for improvements in the next iteration. Also used in predictive projects (lessons learned).

Classic Format: What Went Well / What Didn't / What to Improve

Column	Question
😊 Keep	What went well? (continue)
😞 Drop	What didn't work? (stop doing)
💡 Try	What should we try next sprint?

55. Change Control Board (CCB) Meeting

Meetings

What It Is

A formal review meeting of the Change Control Board to evaluate change requests and decide to approve, defer, or reject them.

Process

Change request submitted (CR Form)
Impact analysis performed (scope, schedule, cost, quality, risk)
CCB reviews and votes
Decision communicated
If approved: update baseline, project plan, stakeholders

56. Critical Path Method (CPM)

Schedule

What It Is

A schedule network analysis technique that calculates the longest path through the network of activities — determining the minimum project duration and activities with zero float.

Key Calculations

Term	Formula	Meaning
ES – Early Start	Forward pass	Earliest an activity can start
EF – Early Finish	ES + Duration – 1	Earliest an activity can finish
LS – Late Start	LF – Duration + 1	Latest an activity can start without delay
LF – Late Finish	Backward pass	Latest an activity can finish without delay
Total Float	LS – ES or LF – EF	How long can be delayed without delaying project
Free Float	ES(next) – EF(current)	Delay without delaying successor
Critical Path	Float = 0	Longest path; any delay = project delay

Schedule Compression Techniques

Technique	Method	Cost Impact	Risk Impact
Crashing	Add resources to critical path activities	Increases cost	May increase risk
Fast Tracking	Overlap sequential activities (parallel)	Minimal cost	Increases risk/rework

57. Critical Chain Method (CCM)

Schedule

What It Is

A schedule network analysis technique that modifies the project schedule to account for resource constraints and incorporates buffers rather than float to protect the delivery date.

Key Buffers

Project Buffer: Added to end of critical chain (protects project end date)
Feeding Buffers: Added where non-critical chains feed into critical chain
Resource Buffers: Signals that key resources will be needed soon

CCM removes individual activity padding and concentrates it into strategic buffers. Based on Theory of Constraints (TOC).

58. Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM)

Schedule

What It Is

The most common method for constructing a project schedule network diagram, using boxes (nodes) to represent activities and arrows to show dependencies.

Dependency Types

Type	Description	Most Common?
FS – Finish-to-Start	A must finish before B starts	✅ Most common
SS – Start-to-Start	A must start before B starts
FF – Finish-to-Finish	A must finish before B finishes
SF – Start-to-Finish	A must start before B finishes	Rarely used

Leads and Lags

Lead: Overlap between activities (negative lag) — acceleration
Lag: Waiting time between activities — delay

59. Resource Leveling & Smoothing

Schedule

What It Is

Techniques used to optimize resource allocation across the project schedule.

Technique	Definition	Impact on Schedule
Resource Leveling	Adjust schedule so resources are never over-allocated; may delay project	Often extends schedule
Resource Smoothing	Adjust within existing float; project end date NOT changed	No extension

60. Decomposition & WBS

Planning

What It Is

A technique for dividing and subdividing project scope and deliverables into smaller, more manageable components.

WBS Rules

100% Rule: WBS must capture 100% of the project scope
Mutually Exclusive: No overlap between work packages
Lowest level = Work Package (can be estimated, assigned, monitored)
Work packages → decompose into → Activities (for schedule)
WBS Dictionary: Detailed description of each WBS element

Types of WBS Structures

Deliverable-based: (most common) — organized by what will be delivered
Phase-based: organized by project phases
Functional-based: organized by department

61. Rolling Wave Planning

Planning

What It Is

A form of progressive elaboration planning where work in the near future is planned in detail while work further out is planned at a high level and refined as more information becomes available.

Where Used

Projects with evolving scope
R&D projects
Hybrid approaches
Long-duration infrastructure projects

Construction Example: Design-Build bridge project — detailed plan for design phase, high-level plan for construction phase that gets detailed as design progresses.

62. Communication Models

Models

Basic Communication Model

Sender → Encode → Transmit (via medium) → Decode → Receiver → Feedback

Noise

Anything that distorts or interferes with the message (language barriers, technical jargon, physical noise, distractions, cultural differences).

Communication Channels Formula

N = n(n–1)/2 where n = number of stakeholders
Example: 10 stakeholders → 10(9)/2 = 45 channels

Communication Methods

Method	Description
Interactive	Real-time exchange (meetings, calls) — most effective
Push	Information sent to recipients (email, reports) — sender not sure it's received
Pull	Recipients access info themselves (intranet, repository)

63. Change Models

Models

ADKAR Model (Prosci)

Letter	Stands For	Meaning
A	Awareness	Know why change is needed
D	Desire	Want to participate and support
K	Knowledge	Know how to change
A	Ability	Implement the required skills
R	Reinforcement	Sustain the change

Kotter's 8-Step Model

Create urgency → Build guiding coalition → Form vision → Communicate vision → Remove obstacles → Short-term wins → Consolidate gains → Anchor in culture

Virginia Satir Change Model

Status Quo → Foreign Element (trigger) → Chaos → Practice & Integration → New Status Quo

64. Complexity Models

Models

Cynefin Framework (Dave Snowden)

Domain	Situation	Approach
Clear (Simple)	Known cause-effect; best practice	Sense → Categorize → Respond
Complicated	Expert analysis needed; good practice	Sense → Analyze → Respond
Complex	Emerging patterns; no clear cause-effect	Probe → Sense → Respond (Agile)
Chaotic	Crisis; no patterns	Act → Sense → Respond
Disorder	Unknown which domain applies	Break into components

Stacey Matrix

Plots projects on two axes — Requirements certainty (x-axis) and Technology certainty (y-axis) — to recommend Simple, Complicated, Complex, or Chaotic management approaches.

65. Tuckman's Team Development

Models

See Section 49 – Team Building for the full Tuckman's model with all 5 stages.

Drexler-Sibbet Team Performance Model

Stage	Question	State
1. Orientation	Why am I here?	Creating
2. Trust Building	Who are you?	Resolving
3. Goal Clarification	What are we doing?	Creating
4. Commitment	How will we do it?	Resolving
5. Implementation	Who does what?	Sustaining
6. High Performance	WOW!	Renewing
7. Renewal	Why continue?	Sustaining

66. Servant Leadership Model

Models

What It Is

A leadership philosophy in which the leader's primary goal is to serve others — the team, organization, and community — rather than to exercise power or authority. Heavily emphasized in PMBOK 7 and Agile.

Key Servant Leader Behaviors

Remove impediments from team's path
Facilitate (not dictate) decision-making
Create a psychologically safe environment
Actively listen and show empathy
Develop team members' capabilities
Focus on team needs before personal agenda
Share credit; accept blame

67. Tools & Techniques by Performance Domain

Performance Domain	Primary Tools & Techniques
Stakeholder	Interviews, Surveys, Stakeholder Mapping (Power/Interest Grid, Salience Model), Brainstorming, Document Analysis, Communication Models
Team	Emotional Intelligence, Conflict Management, Negotiation, Leadership Models, Tuckman's Model, Motivation Theories, Team Building, Active Listening
Development Approach & Life Cycle	Cynefin Framework, Stacey Matrix, Tailoring techniques, Agile methods (Scrum, Kanban)
Planning	Decomposition/WBS, Rolling Wave Planning, CPM, PERT, PDM, Analogous/Parametric/Bottom-Up/Three-Point Estimating, RACI Matrix, Risk Register
Project Work	Audits, Meetings, Change Control, Document Control, Issue Log, Assumption Log, Procurement
Delivery	Requirements Traceability Matrix, User Stories, Definition of Done, Acceptance Criteria, Quality Audits, Control Charts, Flowcharts, Checklists
Measurement	EVA (EV, PV, AC, CPI, SPI, EAC), KPIs, Variance Analysis, Trend Analysis, Forecasting, Dashboards, Burndown Charts
Uncertainty	SWOT, Risk Register, P×I Matrix, Decision Tree / EMV, Monte Carlo, Sensitivity Analysis / Tornado Diagram, Risk Response Strategies

68. EVA Formulas Quick Reference

Metric	Formula	Good Result
Cost Variance (CV)	EV – AC	Positive (+)
Schedule Variance (SV)	EV – PV	Positive (+)
Cost Performance Index (CPI)	EV / AC	> 1.0
Schedule Performance Index (SPI)	EV / PV	> 1.0
Estimate at Completion (EAC) – typical	BAC / CPI	—
EAC – if future at budget rate	AC + (BAC – EV)	—
EAC – if future at different rate (c)	AC + (BAC – EV) / c	—
Estimate to Complete (ETC)	EAC – AC	—
Variance at Completion (VAC)	BAC – EAC	Positive (+)
TCPI (to meet BAC)	(BAC – EV) / (BAC – AC)	≤ 1.0 achievable
TCPI (to meet EAC)	(BAC – EV) / (EAC – AC)	≤ 1.0 achievable

69. PERT Formula Reference

Formula	Equation
PERT Expected Duration	E = (O + 4M + P) / 6
Standard Deviation	σ = (P – O) / 6
Variance	σ² = [(P – O) / 6]²
68% confidence range	E ± 1σ
95% confidence range	E ± 2σ
99.7% confidence range	E ± 3σ

Sigma Levels (Process Quality)

Sigma Level	Defects per Million	Quality %
1σ	690,000	68.27%
2σ	45,500	95.45%
3σ	2,700	99.73%
6σ	3.4	99.9997%

70. Complete Tools & Techniques Master Matrix

#	Tool / Technique	Category	Primary Domain(s)	Key Output
1	Brainstorming	Data Gathering	Uncertainty, Planning	Risk list, Requirements
2	Interviews	Data Gathering	Planning, Stakeholder	Requirements, Risk data
3	Focus Groups	Data Gathering	Delivery, Stakeholder	Requirements
4	Questionnaires/Surveys	Data Gathering	Planning, Stakeholder	Requirements data
5	Benchmarking	Data Gathering/Analysis	Delivery, Measurement	Best practices, metrics
6	Document Analysis	Data Gathering	All domains	Requirements, risks
7	Checklists	Data Gathering	Delivery, Uncertainty	Quality metrics, risk IDs
8	Check Sheets	Data Gathering	Delivery	Defect data
9	Earned Value Analysis	Data Analysis	Measurement	EV metrics, forecasts
10	Variance Analysis	Data Analysis	Measurement	CV, SV
11	Trend Analysis	Data Analysis	Measurement	Forecasts
12	Root Cause Analysis	Data Analysis	Delivery, Uncertainty	Corrective actions
13	SWOT Analysis	Data Analysis	Uncertainty, Planning	Risk/opportunity list
14	Risk P&I Assessment	Data Analysis	Uncertainty	Risk register updates
15	Sensitivity Analysis	Data Analysis	Uncertainty	Tornado diagram
16	Monte Carlo Simulation	Data Analysis	Uncertainty	S-curve, confidence %
17	Reserve Analysis	Data Analysis	Planning, Measurement	Contingency reserve
18	Cost-Benefit Analysis	Data Analysis	Planning, Delivery	BCR, NPV, ROI
19	Assumptions Analysis	Data Analysis	Planning, Uncertainty	Assumption log
20	Alternatives Analysis	Data Analysis	Planning	Selected approach
21	Forecasting	Data Analysis	Measurement	EAC, ETC, completion date
22	Affinity Diagrams	Data Representation	Planning, Delivery	Grouped requirements/risks
23	Cause-Effect Diagrams	Data Representation	Delivery, Uncertainty	Root cause categories
24	Control Charts	Data Representation	Delivery	Process stability info
25	Flowcharts	Data Representation	Delivery, Project Work	Process maps
26	Histograms	Data Representation	Delivery	Distribution charts
27	Scatter Diagrams	Data Representation	Delivery	Correlation charts
28	Matrix Diagrams	Data Representation	Planning, Delivery	RACI, RTM
29	Hierarchical Charts	Data Representation	Planning	WBS, OBS, RBS
30	MCDA	Decision Making	Procurement, Planning	Weighted scores
31	Decision Tree/EMV	Decision Making	Uncertainty	EMV, selected strategy
32	Voting Methods	Decision Making	All	Team decisions
33	Force Field Analysis	Decision Making	Planning, Stakeholder	Change readiness
34	Analogous Estimating	Estimating	Planning	High-level estimates
35	Parametric Estimating	Estimating	Planning	Unit-based estimates
36	Bottom-Up Estimating	Estimating	Planning	Detailed cost/schedule
37	Three-Point/PERT	Estimating	Planning, Uncertainty	Expected values, ranges
38	Story Points	Estimating	Planning (Agile)	Velocity, release plan
39	Active Listening	Interpersonal	All domains	Shared understanding
40	Conflict Management	Interpersonal	Team	Resolved conflict
41	Emotional Intelligence	Interpersonal	Team, Stakeholder	Team cohesion
42	Facilitation	Interpersonal	All domains	Meeting outcomes
43	Leadership Styles	Interpersonal/Models	Team	Team performance
44	Negotiation	Interpersonal	Team, Procurement	Agreements
45	Team Building	Interpersonal	Team	High-performing team
46	Motivation Theories	Models	Team	Motivated team
47	CPM	Schedule	Planning, Measurement	Critical path, float
48	Critical Chain	Schedule	Planning	Buffer-based schedule
49	PDM	Schedule	Planning	Network diagram
50	Resource Leveling/Smoothing	Schedule	Planning	Optimized schedule
51	Decomposition/WBS	Planning	Planning, Delivery	WBS
52	Rolling Wave Planning	Planning	Planning	Progressive plan
53	Kickoff Meeting	Meetings	Team, Stakeholder	Aligned team
54	Daily Standup	Meetings	Project Work	Impediment list
55	Retrospectives	Meetings	Team, Delivery	Improvement actions
56	CCB Meeting	Meetings	Project Work	Change decisions
57	Communication Models	Models	Stakeholder, Team	Effective communication
58	Change Models (ADKAR, Kotter)	Models	Stakeholder	Change adoption
59	Cynefin / Stacey Matrix	Models	Dev Approach	Approach selection
60	Servant Leadership	Models	Team	Empowered team